The Interrelation Between Tourism And Terrorism Tourism Essay

The Interrelation Between Tourism And Terrorism Tourism Essay Given that tourism is very fragile to terrorism, and that it has come to dominate or perhaps displace, economy of most courtiers, it is imperative to take a closer look at the interrelation between tourism terrorism to lessen the negative impacts. As indicated in the introduction, the first approach to the studies into relationship between tourism and security incidents focus on diverse but interrelated topics ranging from the nature of such relationship (including types, causes, targets, motives and so forth) to the impact of terrorism on the tourism demands. The overarching objective of this chapter is to review studies with such approach which emerged in the beginning of the 1990s. The chapter begins with a general discussion and overview of the direct and indirect importance of tourism to the national and global economies and proceeds to discuss the susceptibility of tourism industry to rampant crisis. Those terrorism concepts which relates to tourism industry are briefly reviewed. As contribution to literature, a time series analysis approach with yearly aggregated data is presented to show how and to what extent terrorists have targeted tourism since 1968. The rational and motives behind terrorists attack on tourism destination is a crucial area which seeks logically examine relationship between terrorism and tourism. The next section devoted to these significant discussions. Then it would turn to next area of studies or the impact of terrorism as a tourism crisis on the tourism industry. For this purpose the extant research on the impact of terrorism on the tourism industry in several countries will be reviewed. It also considers various determinants of ter rorism acts on the tourism industry. Last but not least, it explores the theories and components of image and perception management. It is also imperative to clarify the definitions of a few repeatedly used terms that there is potential for confusion among them. This chapter also attempt to offer definition and develop empirically derived concept. Importance Despite recent crisis, tourism represent, one of the fastest growing sectors in the world economy. In 1960 the whole tourist arrivals were around 70 million while it rocketed to some 700 million in 2003. According to World Travel and Tourism Council, out of overall world exports, tourism industry is account for 12.2% and provides 8.3% of total jobs (WTTC, 2007: 6). These figures represent direct economic impact of the industry while the indirect impacts estimated to be much larger. The indirect impacts are enormous. For instance; it plays an important role in the development of new cities, societies and provides them with necessary infrastructure and superstructure. What is more, tourism helps the protection of environment by stimulating the creation of national parks for wild life as well as the conservation and preservation of beaches and marine life as a part of tourist products. From cultural point of view, it offers more opportunities for the restoration of old monuments. It als o encourages small industries, souvenirs, handmade art and craft; it improves the standard of living in many societies. Moreover, the tourist spending in the tourist establishment (hotels, restaurants, and transportation) doesnt go totally to them. These establishments need to purchase goods and services from other sectors with local economy (services of builders, accountants, food, and beverage suppliers). Bale (1998) argues that tourism makes much contribution to employment by differentiating between its impact on direct and indirect employments. The contribution of tourism and travel to both industrialized and developing countries is now so great that any downturns in the level of activity in the industry are a cause of concern. The repercussions extend beyond activities directly associated with tourism, notably airlines, hotels and catering, to sectors that supply intermediate or final goods that are purchased by firms and employees in the industry, so that all sectors of the economy are affected to a greater or lesser extent. Adam Blake and M. Thea Sinclair, Tourism Crisis Management: adjusting to a temporary downturn,Sixth Annual Conference on Global Economic Analysis, 2002, p. 1. Tourism is important not only to developed nations but to many less developed ones, whose chief resources often come from their visitor attractions. Since no other substitute major natural resources, such as oil or heavy industry is available in such countries, they are heavily reliant on international tourism to generate national income. Although the lack of the necessary infrastructure and communication facilities are often proved to be an obstacle to attract a considerable number of tourists, some less developed countries demonstrated considerable success in attraction of tourists (Harrison 2001). In recent years, tourism has been focus of attentions for its potential to help à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ½to the reduction of poverty. UNWTO statistics reveals the growing strength of the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ½tourism industry for developing countries. International tourism receipts for à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ½developing countries accounted for a record number of 203 billion US dollar in 1995. According to the UNW TO, tourism is one of the major export sectors of poor countries and a leading source of foreign exchange in 46 of the 49 Least Developed Countries (LDCs). (UNWTO 2007: p 38) Terrorism background and definition Terrorism phenomena across the world is traceable to centuries ago when Jewish patriots, begun to challenge the Roman sovereignty in holy lands (Poland, 1988). In our times it dates back to the latter half of the twentieth century when terrorist attacks came to occupy a central place to in news headlines and it was in 1960s and 1970s that grabbed the attention of the people from all over the world. It was for the first time in world history that so few people managed to put into trouble so many peoples in a quick and effective manner (Sacks, 2004). The attacks against the US on 11th September 2001, and the post-9/11 attacks, including the bombings in Bali, Jakarta, Casablanca, Mombasa, Madrid, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, London, India and other places are prime examples to this. The terrorism attacks have been of importance to tourism industry as the tourism destination turn out to a prime target of terrorist attacks. Despite the omnipresence of terrorism attacks in the world today, there has been little consensus among scholars of terrorism studies over the concept. There are several reasons why terrorism is difficult to define (Cronin 2002). Firstly, labelling an action as terrorism or a group as terrorist is hardly free from ideological or political partiality (Moxon-Browne, 1994). In addition, most definitions are very flawed. Over time particularly when they come to power, the terrorism groups may recognized as a legitimate government. A prime example is Nelson Mandela and the African National Congress in South Africa. Another source of ambiguity in the definition lay in differing perception of what terrorism as it means different things to different governments and different scholars. To better define the terrorism it is important to set apart terrorism from crime-related acts. Tarlow (2001) lists the differences between acts of crimes and terrorism. He argued that dealing with criminal acts requires well trained police forces while terrorism is more war like in nature which can not cope with police actions alone. Rather it needs cooperation between all stakeholders in question. In addition, the goals of terrorist are destruction through victimization and seek publicity and mass economic destructions with added bonus of loss of life. Table 1.1 Key Difference between Acts of Tourism Crime and Terrorism Crime Terrorism Goal Usually economic or social gain To gain publicity and sometimes sympathy for a cause. Usual type of victim Person may be known to the perpetrator or selected because he/she may yield economic gain Killing is random and appears to be more in line with a stochastic model. Numbers may or may not be important Defenses in use Often reactive, reports taken Some pro-active devices such as radar detectors Political ideology Usually none Robin Hood model Publicity Usually local and rarely makes the international news Almost always is broadcast around the world Most common forms in tourism industry are: Crimes of distraction Robbery Sexual Assault Domestic terrorism International terrorism Bombings Potential for bio-chemical warfare Statistical accuracy Often very low, in many cases the travel and tourism industry does everything possible to hide the information Almost impossible to hide. Numbers are reported with great accuracy and repeated often Length of negative effects on the local tourism industry In most cases, it is short term In most cases, it is long term unless replaced by new positive image Source: Tarlow (2001: 134-135) Since the extent to which terrorism challenges governments and threatens civilian populations differs considerably, it is possible to constitute a typology based on which we can compare different types of terrorism. One approach is to differentiate between domestic restricted to the borders of one country and international consist of the citizens of more than one country terrorism. However, this distinction is proved to be perplexing in practice as most terrorist groups have links to abroad. (Chalk 1996) A more elaborate typology categorizes groups in terms of their primary motivations. Based upon such criteria, Peters (2002) classified terrorists into two broad categories: the practical terrorist and the apocalyp ­tic terrorist. The demand of practical terrorists is restricted to recreation of a state and society without destruction of the whole society, what its followers have in mind is to eradicate what they see as a political evil. A prime example of such terrorism is anti-abo rtion terrorists in United State. Apocalyptic terrorists are very different. Their ultimate goal is to destroy completely the current worlds and build up a new order from the outset. Table 1.2 summarizes the main feature of each approach. Table 1.2 Differences between Practical and Apocalyptic Terrorists Practical Terrorist Apocalyptic Terrorist Mental state Hopes to change a policy through violence Victim of self-rage and anger Time frame for success This world oriented Next world oriented Attitude toward religion Tends toward secularization Tends toward religious mystical experiences Suicide Rarely suicidal, not a key goal Highly suicidal; suicide is a means to a greater end Goal Recreation of state or policy Annihilation of the state, or people Willingness to use WMDs Limited use of chemical Biological or nuclear Value of human life Low Nonexistent Source: Peters (2002) p.86 Regardless of these ambiguities, it is imperative to offer a working definition. For the purposes of this research, the terrorism defined as the calculated threat or use of violence designed to create an overwhelming fear in a larger target population, perpetuated by individuals, sub-national groups, or state actors to attain political, social, or economic objectives. (Alexander, 2002) take the original article http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/9/8/4/7/pages98470/p98470-3.php (GETTING IT RIGHT: Understanding Effective Counter-Terrorism Strategies) The records of terrorism attacks on tourism targets Tourism and terrorism has always been inevitably interwoven. Over the last 30 years tourist industry have been key targets for terrorists attacks. The terrorists believed that they have been very successful in accomplishing their goals through terrorism attacks to tourism destinations. As international terrorism augmented by September 11, 2001 attacks on US targets by al Qaida, its inevitable effects on tourism became the subject of serious concern (Sabasteanski, 2005). Paraskevas and Arendells (2007) list of pos-9/11 truism destinations and tourist targets attacked by terrorists up to September 2006 include more than 18 incidents. As such, Mitroff (2005) is right to state that it is no longer a question of if terrorists will strike but rather a question of when, how and how prepared the destination is to deal with them. The records of terrorist incident on the tourism industry between 01/01/1968 and 07/20/2007 indicate that tourists have been target of 261 out of 33817 terrorist acc idents. (Figure 1) This accidents account for 676 tourists loss of lives and 1875 injury (Figure 2 and 3). Figure1.1 International Terrorism, 1968-2007, Number of Incidents Source: US Department of State (various years) and RAND series Figure1.2 International Terrorism, 1968-2007, Number of Deaths Source: US Department of State (various years) and RAND series Figure1.3 International Terrorism, 1968-2007, Number of Injuries Source: US Department of State (various years) and RAND series The targeted list of terrorist attacks varies. The 1960s and 1970s was the time of plane hijackings. Consequently, the terrorist targeted the tourism destination initially through plane hijackings in the time. In the 1960s, hijackings were often from the U.S. to Cuba with no intention to harm pas ­sengers. However, in the 1970s, the purpose of terrorists actions was the loss of life plus damage to the property. Thus we witnessed the more severe actions from them. During the 1970s, the Munich Olympic Games became the focus of one of the most notorious terrorist attacks and set a new standard for terrorism at major world events. In the consequent years, the targeted list encompassed a variety of sites including, airlines, cruise ships, buses, restaurants and cafes, events and festivals, or sporting or cultural institutions, wherever people get together for leisure or any other purpose. In the beginning of 90s, a significant number of terrorists incidents occurred at tourist destinati ons, while in the recent years we witnessed a shift in the targets of terrorism accidents (Mansfeld and Pizam, 2006). (Figure 4) Figure1.4 International Terrorism, 1968-2007, Incidents by Targets, Compare Tourists to other Targets Source: US Department of State (various years) and RAND series Terrorists motives Tourism scholars argued that understanding terrorist motive may shed light on the relationship between terrorism and tourism (Sonmez, 1997). As such they have sought to explain the motive behind the terrorist activities regarding the tourism destination. To date, there is no consensus among scholars on their explanation of terrorist objectives, however almost all agree that terrorists have much to gain by targeting tourists. In their influential work on terrorism and tourism Sonmez, Apostolopoulos, and Tarlow (1999: 85) noted that tourism destinations offer a cost-effective instrument to deliver a broader message of ideological/political opposition. They placed the terrorists objective in two main groups: strategic objectives and ideological objectives. With respect to strategic objectives, they maintained that terrorists tend to accomplish some goals that can be found only in tourism destinations. These goals include mass casualties, mass publicity and great economic damage. As discussed earlier, tourism is lucrative business interconnected with several other industries; thus an attack on the tourism industry would affect considerably a number of secondary industries as well. What is more, tourism officials have often avoided taking tough steps to stop terrorism because such measures often result in frightening the potential customers. As such the tourism destinations have seen as an easy target for terrorism attacks. Tourism destinations also are visited by a regular flow of new people, thus terrorists are hardly suspected. In other words, terrorists can easily disguise their identity in the tourism destinations. Tourism industry is also a sensitive area to media especially when nationals of other countries are engaged it will rec eive massive coverage from international media and at the same time it bypass their governments censorship. (Weimann and Winn 1994: 143) The ideological objectives are more complex ones encompassing clashing values, cultures, or socioeconomic levels. Such motives push the terrorists to target the tourists for their symbolic value as proxy of larger group or apparently their governments. In his discussion of terrorism in Egypt, Aziz (1995) put into question a widely accepted notion that Islam is simply against foreign tourists. According to Aziz, tourists differs from and locals by many cultural and social gaps. Following Richters he argue that since travel styles can be representative of ideological values, class behavior, and political culture of tourists and their countries, tourists may be targeted because of their tourism styles which may dem ­onstrate conspicuous consumption (i.e., demonstration of money or credit cards; flashy photography equipment; expensive clothes, jewelry, and luggage). The clash of cultures and values between locals and travelers can also account for motives. Certain tourist behaviors (i. e., consumption of pork and alcohol; gambling; Western dress; codes of behavior incongruent with Islamic tradition) oppose to Islamic cultural values-are also suggested as a possible explanation for the Egyptians frus ­tration (Aziz 1995). Wahab (1996) stated that sometimes terrorism specifically targets tourism because it is seen as a movement of visitors representing a form of neo-colonialism or a threat to well-established societal norms, traditions, value-systems, and religious convictions. The impact of terrorist attack to tourism industry The impact of terrorism on a states economy may be enormous, leading to unemployment, homelessness, deflation, crime and other economic and social ills (Laurance, 2003:2) Previous studies based on the accumulate evidence throughout the world shows that the impact of terrorists attacks on tourism industry, destination, the local community, the tourists are in the most cases negative and resulted in decline in tourism demands. Such incidents paralysed or severely impacted the local tourism industry as result of trip cancellation and the inclination of passengers of booking to safer alternative destinations. These events have resulted in major drops in tourism demand, for example we witnessed the loss of more than a million arrivals from the United States to Europe in 1986 down 23% from 1985 because of December 1985 Palestinian terrorists attacks in airports in Rome and Vienna and the 1986 hijacking of TWA flight. (Brady and Widdows, 1988: 8; Hurley, 1988; Conant et al, 1988) The following is copied from: Effects of News Shock on Inbound Tourist Demand Volatility in Korea http://jtr.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/44/4/457.pdf Blake and Sinclair (2003) explored the effects of the September 11 terrorist attack in the United States using a computable general equilibrium model. In their study, they reported the percentage decreases in the number of visits during September 2001 compared to the previous 12 months were 34% for domestic and 23% for international travel. Baron analysed monthly tourism figures to measure the effect of terrorism on tourism in Israel, Spain, Egypt and turkey. For instance, the analysis indicated that ongoing terrorism cost Israel approximately 332000 visitors from North America between Spring of 1985 to the end of 1987, at a cost of around 54 million U.S. Dollars (). Others have also reported reductions in tourist arrival and receipts in the periods following terrorist action in, for example, Israel (Pizam 1999), Egypt (Wahab, 1996) and Northern Ireland (Pizam, l999; Wall, 1996). In addition to quantifying the reduction in the number of visitors to destinations affected by terrorism, studies have also assessed the duration of this impact. Using newspaper reports of terrorism world-wide between 1985 and 1998 Pizam and Smith (2000), found that 79% of media reported terrorist incidents were associated with a significant decline in tourism, and that the effect lasted between one and six months. Enders and Sandler (1991) estimated that an average terrorist incident in Spain in the period between 1970 and 1988 resulted in a decrease of approximately 140,000 visitors. However, the decline did not start until three months after the incident, and took around two years for visitor numbers to stabilize at a le just below that prior to the incident. A somewhat longer delay was observed tourism to Greece and Italy, where it was between six and nine months after terrorist attack before tourism figures started to decrease (Enders et al., 1992). Pizam and Smith (2000) argue that observed time delays in the deterrent effect of terrorist action might be because travelers would u sually forfeit the costs of the travel if they were to cancel at short notice. In addition to the effects of terrorism on tourism over time, research has also examined whether the deterrent effect is limited just to the country targeted by the terrorists or whether it extends to other destinations. Enders et al., (1992) identified a generalized deterrent effect of terrorism in certain European countries on tourism throughout Continental Europe during the 1970s and 1980s. They also identified that terrorism in France did not specifically impact French tourism, but that it did contribute to lost revenues for continental Europe as a whole, suggesting that the deterrence was generalized to the whole continent. However, it is not clear why there was not any reduction in visitors to France. Similarly, Richter and Waugh (1936) state that tourism to Switzerland was adversely affected by terrorism in France, Italy and Austria. The determinants of terrorist attacks to tourism industry The scholars identified diverse variables determining the impacts of terrorism on the tourism industry and the ability of countries to recover quickly. However they failed to offer any integrated empirical or theoretical frameworks for the casual relationship between these variables. Still, almost all studies refer to tourism demand drop as a proxy for tourism industry suffering. Santana (1997) developed a model, which bring together the psychological and demographic factors that tend to influence the attitude to international travel (or destination image) referred to as deterrence (or drop in demand) in the light of threat from terrorism. He identified the psychological factors as Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS), Experience Seeking (ES), attitude to international travel (AIT), risk perception of political hazards and risk perception of physical hazards. The socialization factors of age, gender and travel experience are included in the model as well. Figure1.3 casual relationship among determinants of terrorists attacks to tourism industry TAS Gender ES Deterrence Age AIT Political Hazards Travel Experience Physical Hazards Source: Santana (1997), p. 457 To find out which certain acts of terrorism has more determining impact on tourism demand than others, Pizam and Smith (2000) identified a variety of characteristics of terrorism activities including frequencies, locations, severity and motives. They also took into account destination image and mass media as two important intervening which suppose to impact the tourism demand over the security incidents. Elsewhere Pizam (1997) have maintained that the impact of terrorism attacks on tourism industry varys by its severity of the event and the frequency of occurrence. He noted that: acts resulting in mass destruction of life and property followed by loss of life and bodily harm have the strongest effect on tourism demand. . . . Acts resulting in loss of property only have the lowest effect on tourism demand. . . . All else being equal, acts occurring more frequently will have a more intense, widespread and lengthy effect on tourism demand than those occurring less frequently (Pizam, 1997: 11). Tarlow(2006) argues that in the last decades there does not seem to be a rela ­tionship between a locales base population size and the act of terrorism. As such, ter ­rorism has targeted both rural and urban settings (Mansfeld and Pizam, 2006:17). Discussing on risk evaluation, Walker and Page, (2003) has demonstrated the interrelationship between severity and frequency of incident on a graph. As they indicated there is a direct correlation between frequency of problems and its severity. As such the minor incidents happens more frequent than the severe ones like terrorism. Figure 1.4 The Tourist Health and Safety Continuum: Severity and Frequency of Incidents Source: Walker and Page, 2003, page 222 Image and Perception management Terrorism attacks on tourism destination have not always left an enduring impact on the tourism industry. Yet, the comparative evidence show that soon after the event receives the international coverage, the information it conveys will be result in negative image among potential tourists and this in turn lead to cancelation their travel and /or choosing to book a more secure place. (Mansfeld and Pizam, 2005) Therefore, the host countries tend to take necessary measures to lessen the negative images by conveying correct, impartial and market oriented messages. Lepp and Gibson (2003) referred to four key authorities responsible for disseminating such information à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Security and risk information issued and communicated by governmental agencies in the generating markets (in the form of travel advisories); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The global and local mass media; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Governmental tourism organizations in the affected receiving destination; and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ The travel industry in the generating markets (Lepp and Gibson, 2003). Since discussing on all aspects of the topic will be beyond of the scope of the research I only explore the destination image and the role of media. 4.6.1 The Concept of Image (Tourism Events thesis) pp 57 An image is a concept that is hard to understand. It has both vague and shifting meanings and used in a variety of contexts and disciplines, thereby creating different meanings. The definition for tourist destination image that is most commonly cited is that by Crompton (1979, in Jenkins, 1999): à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the sum of beliefs, ideas and impressions that a person has of a destination. (p. 18) Many authors have also defined tourism image of a destination as the mental portrayal of a destination (Alhemoud Armstrong, 1996; Kotler, et al., 1993, in Erfurt et al., 2003). The image of a destination is a crucial factor in a tourists destination choice process (Jenkins, 1999) and according to Mercer (1971, in Mossberg, 2000) the initial image formation stage is the most important phase in the buying process when selection a destination. Only the destinations the individual is aware of will be considered in the destination selection process and this awareness implies an image of the destination (Mossberg, 2000). Furthermore, according to Fakey and Crompton (1991) only destinations with positive images can be expected to prosper, while those with less favourable images may never achieve their fullest tourism potential. Destination image To make decision on where to go or choosing the one destination over another by potential travellers has long been of great significant to academics and tourist stakeholders. The existing literature suggested that destination choices are influenced and conditioned by both internal (such as images, perceptions, motives, attitudes, and beliefs) and external factors (i.e., time, destination attributes, perceived costs of tourism product, buyer characteristics, and benefits sought). Image among other factors received more attentions as a deciding factor in choosing on destination. Thus the scholars employed the concept of destination image to describe this determining factor. Bojanic (1991: p) defined country destination image as the impressions that a person or persons hold about a country in which they do not reside. Similarly Crompton Crompton (1979: 18, in Jenkins, 1999) noted: destination image is the sum of beliefs, ideas, and impressions that a person has of a destination. Due to its importance, destination image has come to consider as a dependent variable in the consequent studies and the scholars attempted to identify the determinants that define, modify, and strengthen this construct. For instance, Hall and OSullivan (1996) identified three basic elements creating a destination image (a) Returning tourists via verbal reporting, (b) the role of Media in making image and (c) Overall policies of the host government. The scholars are on consensus that the destinations with strong, positive images are more likely to be considered and chosen in the destination selection process. In contrast, they argue that the perceptions held by visitors about potential crisis in the tourist destination have significant influences upon the tourism demand. However, there exist little if any, clearly defined conceptual base for destination image studies, especially the ones investigating causality between destination image and negative events. Seddighi and his colleagues (2000) developed a framework for the examination of perceived impact of political instability on tourism. As illustrated in figure 1.5 a synthesis of information flow which comes from the above mentioned elements of destination image creation (i.e., word of mouth, media, and government policies) is account for the perceptions of potential travellers. This information is in turn manipulated by Prospective Holidaymakers and Tourism Generating Region through a process of the determination of the perceptual pattern/image for a particular tourism destination. The destination choice therefore is reliant on the extent to which the perceptual patterns of holidaymakers towards the destination are positive or negative. Figure 1.5 Perceived impact of political instability on tourism Source: Seddighi et al., (2000 ), p.182 Since the tourists do not spare time to check the reality behind the received images, these images become highly biased and distorted. Due to frequent hostilities that have originated from the Arab-Israeli conflict, Israels high-risk tourism image has prevailed. The struggle to reverse this image has been extremely frustrating, involving simultaneous confrontation between government agencies, tourism operators, and the media. Media Almost no researches disagree on that intensive mass media coverage of security incidents results in the drop of tourists arrivals in affected destinations (Mansfeld and Pizam, 2006:17). They widely accepted that it is the media that give the event more or less significance by different interpretation. Therefore in many cases the news media tends to distort the actual security situation and to exaggerate the risk involved in traveling to affected destinations. In addition, the media reports often is not merely limited to exact report of what happened but also act as an advisor by interpreting the risk involved i

Boundaries, Symmetry and Continuity in Radcliffes The Mysteries of Udo

Below is a passage from I.2 of Radcliffe's The Mysteries of Udolpho concerning the concept of "precepts" in relation to the characters of St. Aubert and his daughter Emily: I have attempted to teach you from your earliest youth, the duty of self- command [†¦] not only as it preserves us from the various and dangerous temptations that call us from rectitude and virtue, but as it limits the indulgences which are termed virtuous, yet which, extended beyond a certain boundary are vicious†¦All excess is vicious; even that sorrow, which is amiable in its origin, becomes a selfish and unjust passion, if indulged at the expense of our duties. [†¦] The indulgence of excessive grief enervates the mind, and almost incapacitates it for again partaking of those various innocent enjoyments which a benevolent God designed to be the sun-shine of our lives. My dear Emily, recollect and practice the precepts I have so often given you [†¦]. (20) The kinds of "precepts" instilled by St. Aubert are those that enjoin such "virtues" as moderation, simplicity, circumspection, and respect (5). Throughout the above passage and in her initial chapter, Radcliffe is establishing several binaries through which the novel as a whole can be mapped, and retirement in the country versus involvement in "the world" (1, 4), economy versus dissipation (2), simplicity versus exaggeration, serenity with congeniality versus tumult with incongruity (4), happiness and misery (4-5), affection versus ambition (11), health versus disease (physical and emotional [8, 18]), and life versus death, are only a few ways in which to articulate them. However, in the end, one binary can serve to organize the many: symmetry versus deformity. And it is in apprehending the logic of h... ...s dissatisfied with is the extent of Quesnel's "improvements," for the enlargemenmt of which Quesnel boasts is characterized by excess. (It is to be noted that, when improving his own house, St. Aubert adapted his enlargements "to the style of the old one" [2]). Thus, as an exploration of the importance of boundaries, and of the symmetry and continuity that those boundaries give, Radcliffe's novel enters into the discourse of its decade. Works Cited Burke, Edmund. "Proportion Further Considered". A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful. New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1909-1917 (New York: Bartleby.com, 2001). http://www.bartleby.com/24/2/305.html Lewis, C. S. The Discarded Image. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967. Radcliffe, Anne. The Mysteries of Udolpho. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Piaget’s Cognitive development theory Essay

Jean Piaget and his theory of the stages of cognitive development have made significant contributions to a wide cross-section of disciplines including educational psychology and applied developmental psychology. Though his original theory has undergone some amount of changes, the basic tenets are still applicable in understanding how humans develop progressively from birth to adulthood. Several theorists have criticized Piaget’s theory and have proposed alternative approaches to explaining human development. Other theorists have espoused Piaget’s theory with few modifications or additions to the original theory. Nevertheless his theory of cognitive development has had a tremendous impact on developmental psychology and will continue to represent a valid theory in helping to understand the nature and stages of human development. The field of applied developmental psychology has and will continue to benefit from the views put forward by Piaget. Biography of Jean Piaget Jean Piaget was born in Neuchatel, Switzerland on August 9, 1896 to what he described as a ‘tumultuous family environment. From an early age Piaget showed signs of having superior intelligence and acquired an interest in several fields of study including psychoanalytic theory, philosophy, mechanics and natural history. At the very young age of ten he published a study on mollusks (malacology). Several years later, in 1917 he published a philosophical novel. His intellectual and research accomplishments thereafter are numerous. In 1918, at only 21 years of age he obtained his doctoral degree in Biology from the University of Neuchatel continuing his study of mollusks in his thesis. His interest in philosophy and psychology led him to Zurich where he worked with mental patients while studying psychoanalytic theory. His interest in child developmental psychology began in Paris with his work in a laboratory at a grade school. Here he worked along with Alfred Binet, who headed the laboratory, in standardizing reasoning tests for Paris children. He became curious about the thought processes of children that influenced them producing either the correct or incorrect answers. Piaget published a number of articles discussing the research he conducted here. In 1921 Piaget was made director of studies at the Institut J. J. Rousseau in Geneva. In 1923 he married Valentine Chatenay with whom he had three children. He continued his study of child psychology and later published five books on the topic. His background in Biology had a significant amount of influence in his research (Slavin, 2000). These publications subsequently distinguished him in this field of study. His academic and administrative appointments saw him working at the University of Geneva, the Sorbonne, the Institut des Sciences de l’Education, and the Bureau International de l’Education. He is also noted to have founded and directed a center for philosophers and psychologists called the Centre d’Epistemologie Genetique. He worked along with several other researchers including Alina Szeminska, Barbel Inhelder, and Marcel Lambercier. Among the research topics that he conducted extensive studies on have been noted the notions of number, physical quantity, and space; manipulation of objects; and the development of perception. These areas collaboratively contributed to his theory of cognitive development. His platform of study was both at the professional and personal level. It is widely known that he conducted detailed observations of his three children Jacqueline, Lucienne and Laurent throughout their infant and language development years. His wife, herself a psychologist, also worked along with him during his observations, recording the behaviors of their children (Fischer & Hencke, 1996). Piaget’s contributions to the field of developmental psychological are indeed considerable and have been widely acknowledged. He was awarded the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award in 1969 by the American Psychological Association for his contributions. At his death in Geneva on September 16, 1980, Piaget had written and published more than 40 books and over 100 articles or chapters dealing with the topic of child psychology. His earliest works include The Origins of Intelligence in Children (1936/1952), The Construction of Reality in the Child (1937/1954) and Play, Dreams, and Imitation in Childhood (1945/1951) (Fischer & Hencke, 1996). To date his research is believed to have made the single most important contribution to developmental psychology (Slavin, 2000; Beilin, 1992) and to a large extent the field of cognitive development psychology was founded primarily on his work (Goswami, 2001, p. 259). Piaget’s theory of cognitive development Piaget sought to describe how development occurs from the moment of birth unto adulthood and the cognitive changes that occur as physical development takes place. Using his background in Biology and his knowledge of the way organisms behave relative to their environment, Piaget sought to explain how children think along these lines. Piaget’s position that children construct knowledge based on these processes was in antithesis to behaviorist orientation which suggested that behavior was molded exclusively by external environmental forces. Piaget’s theory was more constructivist in nature proposing that each child is actively involved in constructing his own reality. Construction of knowledge, Piaget argued, was facilitated via the interaction of the processes of adaptation, accommodation, assimilation and equilibration. Piaget commenced by proposing that children are born with a natural inclination to interact with and a need to understand their environment (Slavin, 2000). From the earliest stage children develop mental patterns that guide their behavior, what Piaget calls schemes. Schemes are used to â€Å"find out about and act in the world† (Slavin, 2000, p. 30). The goal of intellectual development, according to Piaget, was towards adaptation where existing schemes are adjusted in response to modifications in the environment. As new situations arise children either incorporate new objects or events into existing schemes through assimilation or they adjust existing schemes when new objects and events do not fit into those existing schemes in the process of accommodation. When unfamiliar situations arise a state of disequilibrium ensues and the processes of accommodation and assimilation facilitate the return to equilibrium where balance is restored between existing understanding and new experiences – the process of equilibration (Slavin, 2000). The dimensions of the theory Piaget believed that children passed through four different stages of development that are defined by different characteristic features from birth to adulthood. Piaget proposed that each child moves progressively through each of the stages of cognitive development as they mature physically. The four distinct stages of cognitive development that Piaget has specified are the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational periods. He also gives an estimate as to the age at which each child will enter either stage. Wakefield (1996) points out, though, that â€Å"the age range for each stage is only an average† a child may enter a specific stage earlier or later than that estimated by Piaget. However, each child, Piaget argues, must pass through each of these stages of development in the specified order and no child can skip a particular stage. It must also be noted here that his theory is necessarily universal as it examines only how all children will progress and does not seek to analyze individual differences among children. The sensorimotor period represents a child zero (0) to two (2) years old. The main aspects of this stage Slavin (2000) summarizes as where â€Å"infants learn about their surroundings by using their senses and motor skills†. Piaget believes that each child is born with some built in mechanisms and tendencies and these he labels as reflexes. Because a newborn child has not yet developed a concept of his environment, his initial response to this environment up to one month old is instinctive. These reflexes, however, soon become the basis through which the child acquires new perspectives and behaviors (schemes) in an attempt to learn about and understand his environment. From birth to one month children begin to establish schemes as they commence the processing of interacting with and understanding their environment. Initially displaying behaviors by simple reflex children soon begin to modify these reflexes. From one to four months children attempt to reproduce recurring themes in their schemas. Children later begin to establish repetitive patterns in behavior and to associate different behaviors with different schemes. Examples include an infant crying when hungry and laughing when happy. The period two to four months Fischer and Silvern (1985) notes as when the child is developing the ability to intelligently adapt individual actions such as grasping a rattle (p. 634). Between four and eight months children are more object-oriented paying more attention to objects in their external environment, becoming more observant and less preoccupied with issues related to themselves such as hunger and sleep. Children begin to display more coordination in their schemes. From eight to 12 months children become aware of what they want and begin to construct their own schemas in order to achieve their goals. Behaviors are now more deliberate, carried out with a particular purpose in view. From 12 to 18 months children they are exploring new possibilities with objects in their environment. A child’s action at this stage is very experimental using trial and error to discover new schemas. From 18 to 24 months children begin to transition from this stage to the second preoperational stage. They are developing the ability to function using symbolic representations. Of course a child at the sensorimotor stage may not necessarily be able to fully understand every new thing that he perceives in his environment. Wakefield (1996) comments that, even though a child is unable to perform some amount of logical thinking at this stage, there is still some attempt to understand his environment through the use of his sense perceptions and motor skills. The preoperational stage is between ages two and seven years approximately. At this second stage children begin to be able to use symbols to represent things mentally by associating those new things with objects they are familiar with. While they are a little more developed cognitively than the earlier stage they still have a very narrow view of their environment. Within this stage, from age two to four years a child is relatively egocentric believing that everyone else sees things from their perspective. They also possess some amount of animism, believing that objects have characteristics similar to living things such as the ability to move. From age four to seven children further develop their reasoning capacities even though their thought processes are not completely logical. They have difficulty, however, with the concepts of centration and conservation. Slavin (2000) explains these concepts by illustrating that in this stage a child does not understand that the amount of milk in a tall glass is the same when it is poured into a shallower container nor are they able to realize that an object painted a different color is still the same object. The third stage of cognitive development is the concrete operational stage which covers children aged seven to eleven. At this stage children, while experiencing difficult thinking in abstract, are able to form concepts and solve problems. Of course they must be able to relate such operations to already familiar objects or situations in order for them to function properly. They are now able to understand and apply the principles of conservation and centration. Their reasoning is also considerably more logical and can show interrelations between different objects and classes of objects. They are still limited, however, in that they are unable to reason in abstract terms but need concrete circumstances and examples as guides. A child in the final formal operational stage, lasting from age eleven (11) to adulthood, is now able to reason in abstract and to conceptualize situations beyond what they can see and touch. They have now developed the capacity to perform reasoning about events, actions or objects that they cannot see or that are strictly hypothetical and they are also able to use deductive reasoning. They begin to devise plans to solve problems and test their hypothesis against a variety of options. Piaget’s stratification of cognitive development into different stages has considerable implications particularly for educational goals. Because children are able only after having moved through certain stages, to manipulate certain tasks and to be effective in certain cognitive activities, learning situations must be structured so that they match the developmental stages. Education must therefore be developmentally appropriate to the abilities of the child and attempts should be made to help children, as they progress from one stage to the next, to manipulate the operations inherent at each stage. Piaget’s view of cognitive development has been quite formidable and influential in helping researchers understand the processes at work at different stages and ages. There have, however, been several criticisms of the model. One of the major criticisms has focused on the presumed universality of the stages that Piaget describes. He supposes that every child, irrespective of situational context, will go through these stages at a prescribed time and that the principles are therefore applicable to all children everywhere. Some researchers have noted, however, that the rate and stage of development is not at all universal. The ages that Piaget initially suggested as delineating each stage are therefore thought of as rough estimates and children can enter and exit each stage either earlier or later than initially prescribed. Another concern that was raised with regards to Piaget’s theory was that it suggested that as the child progressed through the stages that the abilities at the lower stage no longer become useful or necessary. Piaget later clarified, however, that the concrete thinking and other abilities at the lower stage are not only essential before a child is able to progress to more complex thinking but they are also persistent over time and that a child never loses the lower abilities. He suggests that over time certain tasks become automatic, almost instinctive, but they are still essential even in the later stages of development. Further Piaget’s original theory had not considered the potential impact that the environment may have in impacting behavior. His initial argument much to anti-behaviorist and thus the power of environmental factors to shape behavior was almost ignored. Even though he accounted for these influences in his explanations of the process of adaptation and equilibration, he did not focus much on this aspect. Researchers have found that various social and environmental factors can have a considerable impact on a child’s development. They propose that a child can enter a stage earlier and progress through that stage much quicker than others based on the stimuli available in his environment. Similarly a child’s development may be significantly retarded if adequate stimuli are not provided in the environment. A child would therefore progress through stages later and at a slower pace. The behaviorist position that the environment matters is therefore not completely invalid and their view of the potential influence of the external environment in shaping behavior has some merit. Despite this failure to fully acknowledge and explain the relevance and impact of environmental factors in facilitating knowledge construction based on reality and even though the theory seems to emphasize universal stages of development, Fischer and Hencke (1996) believe that Piaget with his cognitive development theory is notably still the most influential researcher and theorist on developmental that the twentieth century has seen (Fischer & Hencke, 1996, p. 09). Current research Several theorists have arisen in more recent times to expand on Piaget’s original theory, to propose modifications on the areas of weakness or to suggest a complete new approach to understanding cognitive development. Among those worthy of mention are Robbie Case, Kurt Fischer, Michael Shayer and Juan Pascual-Leone. Robbie Case is a neo-Piagetian who agrees with Piaget’s general position that children go through developmental stages. Case also agrees with Piaget that each stage is delineated based on age and is representative of the changing ways that children are able to mentally represent reality and how they process information in their brains. Case also supports that cognitive development occurs in four stages commencing from when a child is around one month old until the period of adulthood. Within each stage he also recognizes substages of development postulating, like Piaget that each successive stage is a continuation or a building on to the former (Sternberg, 1987, p. 08). Beginning in the mid-nineteen seventies Case began to propose alternative interpretations of the stage development theory. He has developed some characteristics in his new theory that are not in complete alignment with original Piagetian thought. His first area of departure is with relation to the way that information is processed in the brain throughout the stages.

An Issue Of Elephant Poaching - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1406 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2019/08/15 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Animal Poaching Essay Did you like this example?   The poaching of African elephants is a crime that plagues the entire world. They are sought after animals for ivory, or better known as their tusks. Even though there is a worldwide ban on ivory and the hunting of elephants, it still sells at a very high price on the underground market and many thrill seekers pay a high price to take an elephant as their trophy. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "An Issue Of Elephant Poaching" essay for you Create order The high price that these animals have on their head has led to the low numbers and a response from nations from all over the world. The real question that arises from the ivory trade and demand across the world and also the illegal hunting of these animals is, why do people do this?  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The cause of elephant poaching is their ivory tusks and the high market value on them. Poachers are the reason behind the sharp decline of the African Elephant, plain and simple. In the 1970s and 1980s countries could legally trade ivory from elephants that were found deceased, but soon started to exhaust all of their resources by doing so, that created a huge demand across the world for it. Thus created the poachers that would illegally harvest the ivory to keep up with the demand and cash out on a large sum of money for doing so. The poachers started to soon act like terrorist groups by banding together and using larger and more powerful weapons to use, such as the M-16, which also caused the decline of the populations of the elephant. The response to this was worldwide. The country of Kenya, not only banned the killing of elephants and the sale of ivory, but it also implemented a shoot-to-kill policy. Shoot-to-kill policies allow rangers to shoot poachers on-sight. (Hutchens 935) This helped the elephant population, during 1970-1989 the population dropped from 167,000 to less than 17,000. But after the adoption of the shoot to kill policy, it rose again up 26,000, which counted as a success. Other countries though did not support the ban of ivory due to the reason that the used it to fuel the conservation efforts and because many of the citizens saw elephants as a pest because they would destroy crops and the watering source they used. This received protests from pro-ban countries and soon the pro-trade countries fell to pressure they were under due to the drop of demand of ivory (Hutchens 935).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   After the ban on ivory in 1989, the elephant population raised tremendously. But soon after, countries figured out that with how the population was growing that it could not be self-sufficient. In the Cardamom Rainforest Landscape, elephants were poached for their tusks and meat because they were considered to be an easy target (Gray 35).  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The effect of elephant poaching is a rapid decline in the elephant population and higher market value on the ivory. The Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, also known as CITES, banned ivory trade worldwide. Elephants were initially categorized as all species which although not necessarily now threatened with extinction may become so unless trade in specimens of such species is subject to regulation. In 1989, CITES changed them to the category, all species threatened with extinction which are or may not be affected by trade. (Hutchens 940) Recently, the poaching of elephants is on the rise. Between the years 2010-2012, over 20,000 elephants were poached for their ivory. The country of Kenya reported 50 elephants in the year 2007 to 300 in the year 2012 (Hutchens 945). This is a huge hit to the population and also to the citizens of Kenya. The elephants serve as a valuable resource due to the amount of revenue that is generated by the population because of tourists coming to seeing them or through programs to protect the elephants. The funds that are generated goes directly to education and water projects (Hutchens 946). The cause of the recent increase of poaching is because of the demand for it on the black market in China. The price for one pound of ivory is over one thousand dollars and the poachers see that as a hefty payday. The demand combined with the sophisticated weaponry has created the greatest poaching crisis since at least 1989, if not ever. (Hutchens 949) The ivory ban in 1989 seemed a success for the yea rs to come after it, but now it seems they have failed and the poachers have found loopholes in the system. In 1999, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Namibia sent their stockpiles of ivory to Asian countries, which refueled the market for it. One of the reasons that the ban may have failed is the different enforcement policy throughout different countries. Each has their own set of penalties and rules in which can be done with the ivory and other resources that the elephants produce. This in which creates the loopholes that the poachers can slip through and take the precious materials for their own profit. Due to the rising threat of poachers and the elephant population decreasing, states in Africa have developed the African Elephant Action Plan (AEAP.) Like stated before, not every country has adopted the AEAP in which has created issues throughout the continent. They need to do more than just adopt the AEAP; they need to effectuate the AEAP through creating uniformed enforcement mechanisms including shoot-to-kill laws, garnering citizen support through sustainable use programs, and increasing funding from both the international community and sustainable use programs. (Hutchens 937)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Botswana allows the trade and the hunting of elephants along with the resources they produce with the proper license. The law regulates the types of weapons used and if using the wrong types of weaponry breaks those laws it could result in a fine or imprisonment. Botswana allows the legal hunting of elephants due to them moving from Appendix I to Appendix II, but it is still illegal for a citizen without a license to kill one, Citizens can kill elephants outside of the preserves without a permit when the elephants are causing or threatening to cause damage, in self-defense, or if they kill the animal in error and promptly report the killing to the government.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The United States has also tried to regulate and ban the trade and sale of ivory through out the world. In 2014 the Fish and Wildlife service proposed changes to the regulations that covered the ivory business. First, the proposed rules ban all commercial imports. Second, the proposed rules restrict exports to bona fide antiques. Third, each sport hunter may import only two trophies (maximum four tusks) per year, halting the unlimited hauls of years past. Fourth, and most controversially, the proposed rules shift the burden of proof for domestic sales from the government to the dealers. (LaFountaine 2014) If these new regulations were passed and put into play, there would no longer be ivory sales inside the United States. This would mean that the poachers would not have a buyer thus sparing the life of an elephant for at least a little while longer. Along with the destruction of the ivory trade in the United States, this would also affect those that already own a piece of ivory. Anyo ne who currently owns an ivory item, and wants to keep it or gift it, is not impacted at all by these proposed regulations. However, owners of ivory without proper documentation (showing it is either antique or acquired legally before the 1989 ban) will not be able to sell it (LaFountaine 2014). The majority of the population in the US agrees with the ban, in a poll taken 80% support the ban on ivory sales if it would mean helping the population reform. The United States though has struggled with the importing and exporting of ivory. From 2009 to 2012, FWS officials seized close to 1,000 products upon entry and about 250 ivory items upon exportation from the United States. (LaFountaine 2014) The number may seem small by the amount that has been confiscated but that is what is pushing the elephant population to extinction. The amount of animals that had to be killed in order to make those products is part of the amount that could be saving the species.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The elephant ivory trade is an issue that plagues the world. An issue that needs to be dealt with in an extremely timely manner or humanity will soon add another species to the extinction list. Most of the countries that have elephant population are trying everything they can to save their populations, but will need the help of the rest of the world doing so.

Effective Communication Skills in Health Care Free Essay Example, 1250 words

Healthcare literacy includes areas in language writing and speaking and the use of relevant technology to relay information and knowledge to people in the healthcare environment. Health literacy is the process in which people can acquire understanding and use health information to improve their health. Through literacy, parents and children can help in preventing disease, improving health and enhancing quality of life. (Lambert & Keogh, 2014) Health literacy also means having adequate understanding of â€Å"health-related information† so that a patient or parent/caregiver can act accordingly to what he/she has read and heard. Listening skills are as important as reading fundamentals. How a patient understands health information can influence his/her ability to keep the doctor’s instructions and prescriptions and improve health. If parents and children are not literate and cannot easily understand health information and instructions, there can be a problem in the treatment process. (Lambert & Keogh, 2014) Health literacy encompasses areas in the educational system, mass media and the health system. It seems complex but can be simplified through a framework provided in figure 1. Figure 1. Framework for health literacy SOURCE: Lambert and Keogh (2014) Healthcare literacy is one aspect of effective healthcare communication. We will write a custom essay sample on Effective Communication Skills in Health Care or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now But concern for communication should also focus on how the two sides of the communication process should interact. How should communication be done? One author recommends SOLER, the process of effective communication. Burnard (1997) maintains that good listening techniques can result in effective communication. The behavior of listening influences effective communication in healthcare. Egan (1990 as cited in Burnard, 1997) suggests ways in the conduct of counselor behavior and offers SOLER, an acronym in the process of effective communication. Sit right in front of the patient Open position should be kept Lean a bit towards the patient Eye contact with the patient must be maintained Relax should not be the last word but the communication should have a relaxed atmosphere. Sitting in front of the client acknowledges the process of open communication. When the healthcare professional is opposite the client, he/she can witness all facets of communication. An open position encourages the client to speak freely. It is also a form of encouragement for the client to express his/her complaints in the treatment process. There are actions or words that portray messages which show that doctor is listening attentively, such as the use of head nods, or plain â€Å"yes, † or short sounds of â€Å"mm†, or gestures and words that portray attentiveness and the act of listening, or telling that the client is not alone.

Cancer The Virulent Disease Essay - 863 Words

An ordinary human body contains approximately one trillion cells and precisely 46 chromosomes in each cell. However, the human body can be altered by a genetic mutation. Over the course of history, genetic mutations have had a large impact on the human race. They have brought harm to numerous amounts of people. Cancer, in particular, is one of the most lethal diseases. Cancer begins when a portion of DNA inside a chromosome is damaged, causing a cell to mutate. Then, the mutated cell reproduces multiple times and creates a tumor. Afterwards, cancer cells break off of the tumor, enter the bloodstream, and disperse throughout the body. If the cells break off, the tumor is considered malignant - this type of cancer is very difficult to cure.†¦show more content†¦The p53 gene is found in the nucleus of every cell in the human body and its main role is to prevent cancer cells evolving† (Does Smoking Cause Cancer?). The poisonous chemicals in cigarettes weaken a gene that pr otects the body from receiving cancer. Without the p53 gene, people become more susceptible to this harmful disease. In order to prevent cancer, society must learn to not use tobacco products. Furthermore, having an unhealthy diet provokes cancer. When explaining foods that increase the risk of cancer, the author writes, â€Å"Certain chemicals are made when red and processed meats are cooked at high temperatures, such as on a barbecue. These chemicals can damage our cells, making them more likely to become cancerous† (Diet Causing Cancer). Cooking processed meat at a high temperature can create noxious chemicals. If one consumes this type of meat, it is like he/she is smoking a cigarette. The poisonous toxins in the meat infiltrate the body and alter the structure of cells, causing the cells to be cancerous. The author goes on to declare, â€Å"Overweight or obese people have an increased risk of pancreatic cancer†¦ because they tend to have higher insulin levels† (Diet Causing Cancer). People who have unhealthy diets are generally overweight or obese. These obese people have a higher level of insulin because their diets consist of large amounts of sug ar. Insulin is created in the pancreas. When the pancreas has to â€Å"work harder† than usual toShow MoreRelatedSkin Cancer Essay553 Words   |  3 Pagesâ€Å"Cancer†, its a disease that has claim the lives of millions, its a disease that so far has no known cure, and its a disease that has many different forms. Cancer is defined as â€Å"a malignant form of tumors, which are tissue masses that arise through mutations in the genes that govern cell growth and division† (Starr, 1999, p. 213). 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And George said yes† (Skloot 41). Sadly, Henrietta would never know of the exciting history her cells would soon be making. She passed away on October 4, 1951 of cervical cancer. She was thirtyRead MoreEssay on Fungal Infections in Immunocompromised Hosts1241 Words   |  5 PagesT-Lymphocyte deficit and decline, renal dysfunction, HIV infection, cancer, treatment with immunosuppres sive drugs and organ transplantation. According to Levy et al, HIV infection lowers both CD4+ and CD8+ T cell counts of the host and weaken the immune defence important in fighting any infection. Consequently, Candida albicans uses its yeast-hyphal switch to penetrate into deep epithelial walls and endothelia human tissues to cause disease. In addition, Candida albicans possesses cAMP dependant pathwaysRead MoreThe Connection between Diet and Cancer Essay1536 Words   |  7 PagesThe Connection between Diet and Cancer Cancer is a disease that can affect many different body parts. 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The Greek Olympics Essay Research Paper Early free essay sample

The Grecian Olympics Essay, Research Paper Early Western Civilization A Gift of Peace from the Past, The Ancient Olympics Since 1896, the twelvemonth the Olympics were resurrected from antediluvian history, the Olympics have been a symbol of the chumminess and harmoniousness possible on a planetary graduated table. The assemblage of athletic representatives, the pride of the battalion, from take parting authoritiess, even throughout the recent Cold War period, is proof that universe integrity is possible ; merely as it was in Ancient Greece with the polis or city states. Olympic Games were held throughout Ancient Greece, but the most celebrated are the games that were held in Olympia in award of Zeus every four old ages from August 6th to September 19th. The first record of these games is of one Coroebus of Elis, a cook, winning a dash race in 776 BC. Most historiographers believe the games to hold been traveling on for about 500 old ages before this. We will write a custom essay sample on The Greek Olympics Essay Research Paper Early or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In the twelvemonth Coroebus was made a portion of history, there was seemingly merely one simple event, a race called the stade. The path was said to be one stade long or approximately 210 paces. In subsequent games, extra events were to be added, most likely to increase the challenge to these astonishing jocks. In 724 BC, the diaulos, a two stade race, was added, followed by a long distance race, about 2? stat mis and called the Dolichos, at the following games four old ages subsequently. Wrestling and the celebrated Pentathlon were introduced in 708 BC. The Pentathlon consisted of five events ; the long leap, javelin throw, discus throw, pes race, and wrestle. The Pentathlons, particularly the successful 1s, were frequently treated and even worshipped like Gods. Because of their keen builds, they were used as the theoretical accounts for statues of the Grecian Gods. The superior athletic ability of these jocks affects the games even today. The distortion and throwing method of the discus throw, which originated in Ancient Greece, is still used today. The original events were even more ambitious than those of today. The modern discus weighs in at merely 5 lbs, tierce of the original weight, and the long leaps were done with the contestant transporting a five lb weight in each manus. The cavity to be traversed in this leap allowed for a 50 pes leap, compared to merely over 29 pess in our modern Olympics. Apparently, the carried weights, used right, could make impulse to transport the jock farther. Legend has it that one Olympic cleared the full cavity by about 5 pess, interrupting both legs as he landed. One important difference between the modern and ancient games ; the original Olympians competed in the nude. Because of this, the 45,000 witnesss consisted of work forces and unwed virgin adult females merely. The lone exclusion to this would be the priestess of Demeter who was besides the merely witness honored with a place. The immature unwed adult females were allowed to watch to present them to work forces in all their luster and ferociousness whereas it was felt that married adult females should non see what they could non hold. In add-on, the virgins had their ain event which occurred on the work forces? s spiritual twenty-four hours of remainder. Called the Haria, in award of Hara the married woman of Zeus, the immature adult females would race dressed in a short adventitia which exposed the right chest. Traditionally, Spartan adult females dominated this event, being trained from birth for merely this intent. The spiritual undertones of the events became highly evident O N the 3rd twenty-four hours of the games when a herd of 100 cattles were killed as a forfeit to Zeus. In actuality, merely the most useless parts were burned in award of Zeus ; most of the meat would be cooked and eaten that twenty-four hours. The forfeits were conducted on a immense conic alter built up from the ashes of antecedently sacrificed animate beings. The hill was so big, the Greeks would cut stairss into the cone after detecting it could be hardened by adding H2O and drying. Another clever innovation was a system to forestall early starts in the pes races. It consisted of a saloon in forepart of the smugglers to guarantee they all start at the same clip. This most likely was viewed as a approval by the rivals, as old to this, they would be beaten by the Judgess with rods for an early leap. This system led to the excessive mechanisms used for get downing the chariot races in 680 BC. Other debuts to the games were packaging in 688 BC, the pancratium, a no-holds barricaded signifier of wrestle, in 648 BC, and finally some events for male childs between 632 and 616 BC. The Olympics of old were wholly a adult male on adult male competition. No records were kept to be broken but a few astonishing fables of the games have survived the trial of clip. Aegeus, for case, was said to hold completed his competition and so to run place to Argos, over 60 stat mis off, in one twenty-four hours. Milo, one of the most feared Olympians of Ancient Greece, was said to hold carried a full adult bull to the sphere, butchered it, and ate the full animate being in one twenty-four hours. Not surprisingly, he was said to hold one many a wrestling lucifer by the forfeiture of his opposition. He besides walked off with six back-to-back Olympic Crown. These fables, for all their blood, perspiration, and cryings, were awarded an olive subdivision from the tree behind the alter of Zeus when they won. Fortunately, the parts they represented were normally slightly more grateful for conveying honor place. It was non uncommon for the masters to have free nutrient for life, money, or other valuable offers. They were frequently worshipped as Gods and sometimes their perspiration was preserved and sold as a charming potion. In the ulterior old ages of the games, an extra event was added which signaled the terminal of the games and the return to the war ridden life of ancient history. Soldiers, adorned with a full organic structure of armour weighing upwards of 50 lbs, would vie in a pes race. Unfortunately, even the evident athletic ability of these soldiers could non forestall the autumn of Greece to Rome in the center of the 2nd century BC. Under Roman regulation, the Olympics began to lose its ardor until it was abolished in 393 Ad by the Christian Roman emperor Theodosius I who most likely objected to the heathen rites associated with the Olympics. Some historiographers believe that even after the official abolition of the Olympic gamess, it may hold survived for an extra 120 old ages. Its subsequent resurgence in 1896 was brought approximately by the find of the ancient bowl. Since that clip, it has been held every four old ages, in conformity with tradition, being interrupted merely for the two universe wars. The competition of the states in these events represents the age old competitory spirit of adult male. The demand for people to take pride in something larger than themselves and experience as if they are portion of a greater good. The Olympics, today every bit good as 3,000 old ages ago, offers a non-combative environment to make so.